Teter, Magda. The term Reformation refers to a great religious reform movement in Europe during the 16th century. [91] The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. Experts often speak of a gradual process of realization between 1514 and 1518. On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, Christianity held the predominant position within the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Catholicism received preferential treatment at the expense of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox. The Habsburg-sanctioned Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants. The first books in Slovene, Catechismus and Abecedarium, were written by Trubar.[84]. Back then, Slovakia used to be a part of the Kingdom of Hungary. [citation needed], Luther began by criticising the sale of indulgences, insisting that the Pope had no authority over purgatory and that the Treasury of Merit had no foundation in the Bible. Simul justus et peccator implied that although people could improve, no one could become good enough to earn forgiveness from God. As Bireley points out, the term "Counter-Reformation" emerged into common discussion of 16th century religion in the 19th century, when a German Protestant historian named Leopold von Ranke wrote History of the Popes. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (16181648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. The Counter-Reformation Movement While the Protestants largely removed public art from religion and moved towards a more "secular" style of art, embracing the concept of glorifying God through depictions of nature, the Counter-Reformation Catholic Church promoted art with "sacred" or religious content. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. [18] Pope Alexander VI (14921503) was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. About one person in seventy-five was part of the Church, as a priest, monk, nun, or member of a lay order. [citation needed]. In art history, the sixteenth century sees the styles we call the High Renaissance followed by Mannerism, andat the end of the centurythe emergence of the Baroque style.Naturally, these styles are all shaped by historical forces, the most significant being the Protestant Reformation's successful challenge to the spiritual and political power of the . The center of Protestant learning in Hungary has for some centuries been the University of Debrecen. Improved training and education for some Roman Catholic priests. [91] Today, Protestantism constitutes the second-largest form of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 800million to 1billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. https://www.britannica.com/summary/Reformation-Causes-and-Effects. The next sizable territories were the Landgraviate of Hesse (1526; at the Synod of Homberg) and the Electorate of Saxony (1527; Luther's homeland), Electoral Palatinate (1530s), and the Duchy of Wrttemberg (1534). [17][bettersourceneeded], Pope Sixtus IV (14711484) established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, thereby establishing a new stream of revenue with agents across Europe. [59] Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation.[79][80]. Eire, Carlos M. N. "Calvin and Nicodemism: A Reappraisal". Translation of the Bible into German, French, English, and other languages. In Knigsberg (now Kaliningrad), in 1530, a Polish-language edition of Luther's Small Catechism was published. The outstanding success of the Catholic Counter Reformation movement, however, is the longevity in which Catholicism has stayed the dominant religion in the country. Key events of the period include: Diet of Worms (1521), formation of the Lutheran Duchy of Prussia (1525), English Reformation (1529 onwards), the Council of Trent (154563), the Peace of Augsburg (1555), the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570), Edict of Nantes (1598) and Peace of Westphalia (1648). After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Berne reformer Guillaume (William) Farel, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the "fallen city" of Geneva. Between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Habsburg uprisings calling for equal rights and freedom for all Christian denominations, with varying success; the uprisings were usually organised from Transylvania. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes.[127]. To understand the Protestant Reform movement, we need to go back in history to the early 16th century when there was only one church in Western Europe - what we would now call the Roman Catholic Church - under the leadership of the Pope in Rome. They clarified and defended Catholic teachings. In some cases, you likewise attain not discover the declaration The Unintended Reformation How A Religious Revolution Secularized Society Pdf that you are . It swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities, including the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight from Giebelstadt who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy. People who did not conform to the will of the Habsburgs and the leaders of the Catholic Church were forcibly sent there. For these intellectuals, the historical quest was thus part of a quest to locate national interests within the broader political and religious changes that took place in Europe, and in Germany in particular. Despite these wars against Protestant, Orthodox, and Muslim neighbours, the Confederation of Warsaw held with one notable exception. Jan Hus was declared a heretic and executedburned at stakeat the Council of Constance in 1415 where he arrived voluntarily to defend his teachings. . The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as Constantinople by the start of the 17th century. Let me propose three: 1 . [61] She was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. This period is known as the English Reformation. The Reformation had to be a political event. The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Leaders within the Roman Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Confutatio Augustana in 1530, the Council of Trent in 1545, the formation of the Jesuits in 1540, the Defensio Tridentin fidei in 1578, and also a series of wars and expulsions of Protestants that continued until the 19th century. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter Mary, Queen of Scots (then also Queen of France). The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) refers to the widespread religious, cultural, and social upheaval of 16th-century Europe that broke the hold of the medieval Church, allowing for the development of personal interpretations of the Christian message and leading to the development of modern nation-states.It is considered one of the most important events in Western history. The Reformation foundations engaged with Augustinianism. The study and practice of music was encouraged in Protestant-majority countries. They also tried to win back areas of Europe that had been lost to the Catholic Church. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' Calvinistic Methodist movement. [53] Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans,[54] yet he quickly adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was Hans Tausen. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards. Jews and Heretics in Catholic Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era. The translation had a significant impact upon the Welsh population and helped to firmly establish Protestantism among the Welsh people. An English king had a disagreement with the pope. [56] In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop gmundur and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy". Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the previous century and could not prevent schism and the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. The presence of bishoprics made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. The desire of many people to read the Bible in the language they spoke at home rather than in Latin. Upon his return to the country Kihn John Casimir crowned Mary a Queen of Poland. The Counter-Reformation was a period of spiritual, moral, and intellectual revival in the Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries, usually dated from 1545 (the opening of the Council of Trent) to 1648 (the end of the Thirty Years' War). Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the Crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The diversity of Reformation political thought also emerged over the issue of whether secular authorities should play a positive, even a leading role in the renewal of Christianity to which Protestant reformers were committed. [51] Luther became so angry that he famously carved into the meeting table in chalk Hoc Est Corpus Meuma Biblical quotation from the Last Supper meaning "This is my body". The Reformation not only changed how individuals viewed religion in Europe, but also caused political upheaval. In the early 17th century internal theological conflict within the Calvinist church between two tendencies of Calvinism, the Gomarists and the liberal Arminians (or Remonstrants), resulted in Gomarist Calvinism becoming the de facto state religion. Though we might think of the Reformation in spiritual terms and view its legacy primarily as a renewed understanding of the Gospel, the work of Christ, and the role of Scripture in the life of the church, the reformers themselves had no choice but to be involved in politics. The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The former settled in the Vistula Delta where they used their agricultural abilities to turn parts of the delta into plodders. Even later, Lutheranism gained a substantial following, after being permitted by the Habsburgs with the continued persecution of the Czech native Hussite churches. Geneva. In the aftermath of the Swedish withdrawal and truce, attitudes throughout the nobility (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant) turned against the Polish Brethren. Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia. In 1620, the Battle of White Mountain defeated Protestants in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) who sought to have the 1609 Letter of Majesty upheld. Ottoman incursions decreased conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, helping the Reformation take root. The end of the sale of indulgences. [25][26] Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war.[27]. This established the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion. The split between Christians in western Europe led to wars as countries struggled with new religious alliances. At that time, Mennonites and Czech Brothers came to Poland. [38], The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[39], The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[39], A 2020 study linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther (e.g. The Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. The Counter-Reformation (also known as the Catholic Reformation, 1545 to c. 1700) was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648). In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of Augustine of Hippo. Further Explanation:- The Counter-Reformation which is also known as Catholic Reformation and known as the period when Catholic Resurgence took place and it started in the response of . As a result, some of them lived as crypto-Protestants, also called Nicodemites, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly. 270286, Atkinson Fitzgerald "Printing, Reformation and Information Control". Which statement best describes a reform initiated by the Council of Trent? Practically every work of art depicted biblical themes. Which statement best describes a reform initiated by the Council of Trent? [28] Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, Lutheran and Zwinglian churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States. In 1525 the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights secularised the territory, became Lutheran, and established Lutheranism as the state church. In 1417, two years after the execution of Jan Hus, the Czech reformation quickly became the chief force in the country. Many of these patterns were enshrined in the Schleitheim Confession (1527) and include believers' (or adult) baptism, memorial view of the Lord's Supper, belief that Scripture is the final authority on matters of faith and practice, emphasis on the New Testament and the Sermon on the Mount, interpretation of Scripture in community, separation from the world and a two-kingdom theology, pacifism and nonresistance, communal ownership and economic sharing, belief in the freedom of the will, non-swearing of oaths, "yieldedness" (Gelassenheit) to one's community and to God, the ban (i.e., shunning), salvation through divinization (Vergttung) and ethical living, and discipleship (Nachfolge Christi). [citation needed]. Prior to Martin Luther and the other Protestant Reformers, there were earlier reform movements within Western Christianity. In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. The counter-reformation can be additionally seen as a political movement because of the loss in revenue in the Baltic provinces. The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press. In October another thirty were executed. In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height. Many Hussites thus declared themselves Lutherans. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2018. According to a 2020 study in the American Sociological Review, the Reformation spread earliest to areas where Luther had pre-existing social relations, such as mail correspondents, and former students, as well as where he had visited. During the war with Sweden, when King John Casimir (Jan Kazimierz) fled to Silesia, the Icon of Mary of Czstochowa became the rallying point for military opposition to the Swedish forces. Primo Trubar is notable for consolidating the Slovene language and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality. These Puritan separatists were also known as "the Pilgrims". Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies, 2001. In May 1559, sixteen Spanish Lutherans were burnt at the stake: fourteen were strangled before being burnt, while two were burnt alive. Under Edward VI the Church of England moved closer to continental Protestantism. The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the Magisterial Reformation. [11] He was accordingly characterised as the "evening star" of scholasticism and as the morning star or stella matutina of the English Reformation. The Counter-Reformation which is also known as Catholic Reformation and known as the period when Catholic Resurgence took place and it started in the response of Protestant Reformation and towards internal revival. At one point in history[when? Their descendants are still there, such as the Sub-Carpathian Reformed Church. The latter settled mostly in Greater Poland around Leszno. The various groups had their own juridical systems. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Protestant historians have become accustomed to calling this 'reflexive or defensive movement' the 'Counter- Reformation . We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. Although Zwinglianism does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism (it even had its own equivalent of the Ninety-five Theses, called the 67 Conclusions), historians have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any contact with Luther's publications before 1520, and Zwingli himself maintained that he had prevented himself from reading them. What does the speaker imply when he says "I, too, am America"? Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expulsion for his religion". In 1558 the Transylvanian Diet of Turda decreed the free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but prohibited Calvinism. Lucas Cranach the Elder (14721553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. Who were some of the key figures of the Reformation? The council created a new administrative system to stop corruption and unfair practices within the Catholic Church. A. worked to spread the ideas and teachings of John Calvin across Europe. Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history. The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. ", Walsham, Alexandra. Although Luther preached consubstantiation in the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he believed in the real presence of Christ in the Communion bread. Their refusal to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the Book of Common Prayer, and the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection, sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement. [83] He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. [35] The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany,[31] and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates. [64], The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market. The Hussites were a Christian movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus. [87] However, there are a few popular interpretations. The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries. From 1545, the Catholic Church fought back with a movement of its own - the Counter-Reformation, sending out Jesuit priests to campaign against the spread of Protestantism and convert the populations of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. Calvinism was popular among Hungarians who inhabited the southwestern parts of the present-day Ukraine. The first Protestant congregation was founded in Brest-Litovsk in the Reformed tradition, and the Belarusian Evangelical Reformed Church exists today. [citation needed]. [citation needed]. Kooi, Christine. The Kingdom of Navarre, although by the time of the Protestant Reformation a minor principality territoriality restricted to southern France, had French Huguenot monarchs, including Henry IV of France and his mother, Jeanne III of Navarre, a devout Calvinist. Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth (e.g. By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. [citation needed], Refused an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. It expressed an alternate vision of Christian practice, and led to the creation and rise of Protestantism, with all its individual branches. Molinism presented a soteriology similar to Protestants within the Roman Catholic Church. After the Heidelberg Disputation (1518) where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation (1519), the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. Elton, Geoffrey R. and Andrew Pettegree, eds. The priesthood of all believers downplayed the need for saints or priests to serve as mediators, and mandatory clerical celibacy was ended. The council created a new administrative system to stop corruption and unfair practices within the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement that swept through Europe in the 1500s. Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Littlejohn, Bradford, and Jonathan Roberts eds. The Counter Reformation saw the Church use art, architecture, music and exploration to ensure that Christians understood that only St. Peter and the Church have the key: Rubens. [53] During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. Choose one of these movements and discuss the influence of political, spiritual, or cultural aspects of the movement as well as any subsequent strife (warfare and other forms of violence). The first two Lutheran martyrs were monks from Antwerp, Johann Esch and Heinrich Hoes, who were burned at the stake when they would not recant. Austria followed the same pattern as the German-speaking states within the Holy Roman Empire, and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. The separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. The document sparked a religious revolution across Europe and . The Reformation in western and central Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. [88], The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the European wars of religion. The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. [65] Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. Different reformers arose more or less independently of Luther in 1518 (for example Andreas Karlstadt, Philip Melanchthon, Erhard Schnepf, Johannes Brenz and Martin Bucer) and in 1519 (for example Huldrych Zwingli, Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Ulrich von Hutten), and so on. The English Reformation followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe. In contrast, Reformed cities typically secularised monastic property. The Reformation did not receive overt state support until 1525, although it was only due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise (who had a strange dream[48] the night prior to 31 October 1517) that Luther survived after being declared an outlaw, in hiding at Wartburg Castle and then returning to Wittenberg. As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew. The counter-reformation was introduced in Europe to weaken the Protestant Reformation and rebuild the power of the Catholic Church through education, clergy reform, and spreading of the Catholic faith. [1] During his reign, he selected Catholics for the highest offices in the country. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies between Catholic tradition and Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. [67] The Welsh Protestants used the model of the Synod of Dort of 16181619. Andrew P. Klager, "Ingestion and Gestation: Peacemaking, the Lord's Supper, and the Theotokos in the Mennonite-Anabaptist and Eastern Orthodox Traditions", Birgit Stolt, "Luther's Translation of the Bible. Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and also popular disinterest. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. No core of Protestantism emerged. Four religions were declared to be "accepted" (recepta) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zpolya, r. 15401571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism. Spain, which had only recently managed to complete the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish populations of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition in 1478. [77] Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of Erasmus. In the history of theology or philosophy, the Reformation era ended with the Age of Orthodoxy. Which statement Best describes what happened if a German prince decided a state was Catholic in the late 1500s? Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticising Luther. The Counter-Reformation was the label for the Roman Catholic revival of the sixteenth century. Some[who?] Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation developed radical Protestant churches throughout Europe.
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