However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Major surface water features of Cameroon. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. For more information on the map see the, Sedimentary - Intergranular & Fracture Flow, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon, irrigation water use and requirement statistics, Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon, Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map, Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon, Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution, Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon, Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon, Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin, Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon, Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon, http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php?title=Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon&oldid=57918. A male Lion will develop a mane by year 3, this will vary in color from blond to black. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Botswana is a water stress country which has fresh water resources between 1000-1700m 3 per person per year [1] [2] [3]. What are the major rivers in Cameroon? Groundwater usually has low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and conductivities generally between 30 and 350 uS/cm. They pronk: bounce with all four feet alternatively on and off the ground, for what seems to be pure joy. Water and Sanitation Program. In more rural areas, people walk great distances just to reach rivers. This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. The consequence of consumption of such poor quality water is the spread of related diseases such as cholera and typhoid. Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Water weed which has invaded and is choking Harare's main water sources like Lake Chivero. Cameroon is rich in national parks and wildlife reserves, including the Waza National Park in the north (which contains both forest and savanna animals), the Dja Faunal Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and the Campo Ma'an National Park in the southwest (which has elephants, hippos, leopards, and plenty of primates). Further water and related statistics can be accessed at the Aquastat Main Database. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. Namib Desert Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Proportional prey selection did not differ significantly between seasons neither for males (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=10.17, df=7, p=0.18; Friedman 2early dry-wet=9.57, df=7, p=0.21; Friedman 2late dry-wet=11.70, df=7, p=0.11), nor for females even though results approached significance level (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=12.95, df=7, p=0.07; Friedman 2early dry-wet=11.67, df=7, p=0.11; Friedman 2late dry-wet=12.45, df=7, p=0.08). It is located in banakata. I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Sossusvlei Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. Some groundwater in deeper aquifers contains low oxygen and corresponding high iron and even hydrogen sulphate gas (Mafany and Fandong 2006). The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). Frequency of use (in both kills and faeces) and selection index of kudu in the early dry season highlight the importance of this species to lion female diet. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Water Resources Management 24(5), 871888. 2015) of groundwater. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). (I accept). They fill small basins at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the landscape with rainwater or snow melt. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Mzima springs. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. This brochure contains only modifications / changes, undertaken on the longitudinal We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]). During this time game sightings were spectacular. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. The upland regions have highland forest type vegetation. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. For each season, we also calculated the availability of each distance-to-water category in the study area. Sanou, S M, Temgoua, E, Guetiya, W R, Arienzo, A, Losito, F, Fokam, J, Onohiol, J F, Djeunang, B, Zambou, N F, Russo, G, Antonini, G, Pan, A and Colizzi, V. 2015. Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). Aggregation of vulnerable herbivores around water sources in the dry season is likely to attract predators. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. Our office hours are 08:00 - 19:00 (GMT+2). We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. AMCOW. Map developed from USGS GTOPOPO30; GADM global administrative areas; and UN Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Unfortunately, it is also a country where wildlife is subject to a wide and intense array of human pressures. Altitude varies from 800 m to 1100 m and rainfall data were available from 1918 to 2007. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. Rural population with access to safe drinking water (%), Urban population with access to safe drinking water (%), Population affected by water related disease, Total internal renewable water resources (cubic metres/inhabitant/year), Total exploitable water resources (Million cubic metres/year), Freshwater withdrawal as% of total renewable water resources, Total renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Exploitable: Regular renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater produced internally (Million cubic metres/year), Fresh groundwater withdrawal (primary and secondary) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: entering the country (total) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: leaving the country to other countries (total) (Million cubic metres/year, Industrial water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Municipal water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Agricultural water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Irrigation water withdrawal (all water sources), Irrigation water requirement (all water sources), Cultivated land (arable and permanent crops) (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by groundwater (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by mixed surface water and groundwater (ha). Chari provides an outstanding home for some fish species including nile and perch, making it an important fishing ground for many local communities. British Geological Survey. It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Chambers One, 27 Willie van Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. In our case this is particularly true for the class small antelopes. Small sedimentary basins - including Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil, Sorawel, Mayo Oulo and Mamf - Cretaceous. Copyright: 2013 Davidson et al. The river is an important fishing ground for local communities. cameroon water resources for lions. We were horrified seeing first hand the daily struggle for survival these precious women faced and our hearts went out to them. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. 1 being water and season. Then-Gov. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years. What are the water sources of Cameroon? Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). 1). Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Karoo Mafany GT and Fantong WY. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Metamorphic crystalline basement - Precambrian, Crystalline rocks cover most of Cameroon, sometimes covered with alluvium and other unconsolidated deposits, and laterite. With 208 km 3 of renewable water resources, only 1 km 3 is used for drinking water. Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. and common mice (Mus spp.). Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. Certain details were gradually implemented to ensure that the environment of the areas where they were detained were close to if not identical to the habitat where they originally lived in. In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. Three seasons are distinguished: the wet season (November-February), with long-term mean rainfall of 513.6160.0 mm, wide spread surface-water availability and abundant, high quality browse and grazing; the early dry season (March-June), long-term mean rainfall of 111.172.8 mm with decreasing fodder quality and surface-water availability; and the late dry season (JulyOctober), long-term mean rainfall of 25.026.6 mm with surface-water restricted to artificial waterholes and very few natural pans, while deciduous trees lose their foliage and both browse and grazing is of the lowest quality during the year. Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. Most groundwater in Cameroon is thought to be of good natural inorganic quality. Where is Cameroon in the World? Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ZD MV. No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. Responsibility for the construction and management of rural wells and boreholes has been transferred to communes (AMCOW 2011). The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. First, seasonal importance of each species was assessed by (i) investigating, for lion males and females separately, the frequency of occurrence of prey species at kills, and (ii) comparing seasonal results from faecal data with no sex differentiation. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). Schedule a phone or Zoom call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with a safari planner. Values >0 indicate preference, values <0 suggest use but avoidance. 2013. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Hence male and female data were analysed separately. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Tsavo Lion Project - Lion Conservation Fund. The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. 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Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape with rainwater or snow melt or. Prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests the rains and removal by abundant! Gis shapefile of the manuscript around water sources like Lake Chivero main water sources like Lake Chivero achieved an on! Sorawel, Mayo Oulo and Mamf - Cretaceous natural inorganic quality investigated whether is.
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